Discount Window Treatment -

(2020): A Richmond Fed Economic Brief that explains how stigma undermines the Fed's role as the "lender of last resort". Quick Definition: The Discount Window Discount Window Stigma After the Global Financial Crisis

Stigma surfaced eight months before the 2023 regional banking crisis and has not significantly subsided since. Other Key Research Papers

Olivier Armantier, Marco Cipriani, and Asani Sarkar discount window treatment

Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Report No. 1137 (Revised March 2026) Key Findings:

Despite Fed efforts to encourage usage, the DW remains heavily stigmatized. (2020): A Richmond Fed Economic Brief that explains

Banks often choose to pay high premiums (e.g., 13–44 basis points above the DW rate) to borrow from private markets rather than use the Fed, simply to avoid appearing financially weak.

(2025): Uses laboratory experiments to show that once a facility is stigmatized, it is extremely difficult to "cure" that perception, even with policy changes. 1137 (Revised March 2026) Key Findings: Despite Fed

(2024): Explores why banks use the window outside of crises, noting that smaller banks with illiquid portfolios are the most frequent users.